History of Nursing Research Worksheet Essay Example for Free

History of Nursing Research Worksheet Essay Nursing Research covers key issues, including health promotion, human responses to illness, acute care nursing research, symptom management, cost-effectiveness, vulnerable populations, health services, and community-based nursing studies† (Henly, 2013). Sigma Theta Tau Journal published by this organization is now called Image—The Journal of Nursing ScholarshipFirst published: 1967 Importance: â€Å"This widely read and respected journal features peer-reviewed, thought-provoking articles representing research by some of the world’s leading nurse researchers. Reaching health professionals, faculty and students in 90 countries, the Journal of Nursing Scholarship is focused on the health of people throughout the world. It reflects the society’s dedication to providing the tools necessary to improve nursing care around the world† (Hegyvary, 2011). Research in Nursing and Health First published: 1978 Importance: â€Å"a general peer-reviewed research journal devoted to publication of a wide range of research and theory that will inform the practice of nursing and other health disciplines. It has influenced on nursing education administration, health issues related to nursing, and testing research in practice† (Research In Nursing Health , n. d. ). Western Journal of Nursing Research First published: 1979 Importance: â€Å"The dissemination of research studies, book reviews, discussion and debate, and meeting calendars, all directed to a general nursing audience. It has risen to the challenges of the ever-changing nursing research field, providing an innovative forum for nurse researchers, students and clinical practitioners to participate in ongoing scholarly debate† (Conn, 2013). Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing PracticeFirst published: 1987 Importance: â€Å"Research and Theory for Nursing Practice (former named Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice) focuses on issues relevant to improving nursing practice, education, and patient care. The articles strive to discuss knowledge development in its broadest sense, reflect research using a variety of methodological approaches, and combine several methods and strategies in a single study. Because of the journals international emphasis, article contributors address the implications of their studies for an international audience† (Springer Publish Company, 2013). Applied Nursing ResearchFirst published: 1988 Importance: â€Å"To present original, peer-reviewed research findings clearly and directly for clinical applications in all nursing specialties. Regular features include ‘Ask the Experts,’ research briefs, clinical methods, book reviews, news and announcements, and an editorial section. Applied Nursing Research covers such areas as pain management, patient education, discharge planning, nursing diagnosis, job stress in nursing, nursing influence on length of hospital stay, and nurse/physician collaboration† (Applied Nursing Research, 2013). Nursing Science QuarterlyFirst published: 1988 Importance: â€Å"Nursing Science Quarterly (NSQ) is a peer-reviewed quarterly journal publishing original manuscripts focusing on nursing theory development, nursing theory-based practice and quantitative and qualitative research related to existing nursing frameworks, contributed by the leading theorists, researchers and nurse executives† (Nursing Science Quarterly, 2013). Conduct and Utilization of Research in NursingFirst published: 1982-1983 Importance: â€Å"The Conduct and Utilization of Research in Nursing (CURN) project, an organizational approach, was designed to develop and test a model for using research-based knowledge in clinical practice settings† (Morse, 2006). Annual Review of Nursing ResearchFirst published: 1983 Importance: â€Å"The purpose of this annual review is to critically examine the full gamut of literature on key topics in nursing practice, including nursing theory, care delivery, nursing education, and the professional aspects of nursing. ARNR has brought together internationally recognized experts in the fields of nursing, and continues to deliver the highest standards of content and authoritative reviews of research for students, researchers, and clinicians† (Springer Publishing Company, 2013). AgenciesEstablishment date and goal or function: American Nurses’ Association (ANA) Council of Nurse Researchers Established: 1972 Goal: â€Å"The Council of Nurse Researchers helped with the development of research endeavors, gave credit to meritorious research, and facilitated the discussion of research ideas† (Burns ; Grove, 2009). National Institute for Nursing Research (NINR)Established: 1993 Goal: â€Å"NINR is to promote and improve the health of individuals, families, communities, and populations. NINR supports and conducts clinical and basic research and research training on health and illness across the lifespan to build the scientific foundation for clinical practice, prevent disease and disability, manage and eliminate symptoms caused by illness, and improve palliative and end-of-life care† (National Institute Of Nursing Research,

Human Cloning Essay -- Ethical Issues, Cloning

Human Cloning Human Cloning comes with two dangerous processes, reproductive cloning (the creating of a new organism) and the therapeutic cloning (the creation of a new tissues or â€Å"other biological products†) which affects the ethics of human society. Scientists perceive cloning benefits all men and women, while religious leaders stress the idea of cloning to be an unethical process. Although human cloning serves as an aid to the children and parents with conflicts, cloning is completely unacceptable to convey human life as a product. Humans reproductively and therapeutically give the idea of people becoming a product rather than a living being. Siedler emphasizes that â€Å"reproductive cloning could also represent an enormous step in direction of transforming human procreation into human manufacture† (Siedler 91-92). In other words, reproductive cloning will create a world full of dolls that will remove every trace of living beings. Though it is hard to believe the world becoming a doll house for each family or community, it has come to a conclusion that the ability of cloning and â€Å"creating children† is questioning every person, â€Å"what does it mean to be a human?† (Yount 114). If it was not bad enough for this world to describe some of the people to be looked upon as nothing but a thing, cloning pushes the idea to a whole new level. â€Å"By opening the door to many things such as manipulation,† Yount states, as she desperately explains the fear in cloning, â€Å"of wanting to be someone else, it can treat them as objects instead of person,† (Yount 114). To even add the intensity of what cloning could do, therapeutic cloning delivers a new definition to fear. According to the ... ...). Parents suffer the mental issue of the child recieving â€Å"medium-term consequences including premature aging, immune system failures, and sudden unexpected deaths,† (Siedler 87-88). Therapeutic cloning sounds safe and ethical, â€Å"but it is no different from those that could be used in attempts to create cloned children† so why risk the process? (â€Å"Cloning† 94). Therapeutic and Reproductive cloning is used in a beneficial way in different circumstances, but the disadvantages overpowers the beneficial usage with the risk of corrupting the world and more. Reproductive cloning forms human manufacturing as well as a child to a parent who are unable to bear one, and therapeutic cloning give animals a repaired heart muscle, as well as the corruption of religion and social ideas in this world. Cloning comes with consequences and more are to come, so is it worth to clone?

Atomic Structure

The Rutherford Model of the Atom 1. In 1911 Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atomic structure. He suggested that an atom consists of a central nucleus (where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated) having a positive charge, surrounded by moving electrons carrying negative charge. Geiger and Marsden carried out an experiment to verify his proposal. The Geiger/Marsden a Particle Scattering Experiment 1. The apparatus is illustrated in the diagram below. | 2. The apparatus was in an evacuated container. The detector was a ZnS screen observed through a low power microscope. Each time an alpha particle hit the screen, a small flash of light was produced. 3. The detector was mounted on a support such that it could be rotated to measure the angular deflection of the alpha particles as they passed through a very thin sheet of gold. They measured the numbers of particles deflected through various angles. 4. It was found that most of ? particles pass through the gold undeflected; only a relatively small number are deflected (scattered). 5. Their results were considered to confirm Rutherford’s model and allowed them to estimate the size of the nucleus (greater than 10-14m) and the size of the atom (greater than10-10m), thus producing the slightly surprising conclusion the most of the space occupied by an atom is empty space! Closest Approach of an Alpha Particle to a Nucleus 1. For a given speed of alpha particle, the closest approach to a nucleus, rmin, will occur when the initial direction of motion of the particle is along the line joining the centers of particle and nucleus. 2. In this case, at the point of closest approach, the speed of the particle is zero. 3. As the particle approaches the nucleus, kinetic energy is being converted to electrical potential energy. K. E. lost = E. P. E. gained| 4. Electrical potential at a distance r from a point charge Q is given by | 5. For a nucleus of atomic number Z, the charge is Ze, where e is the magnitude of the charge on one proton (the same as the magnitude of the charge on an electron). 6. The magnitude of the charge on an alpha particle is 2e 7. Therefore, the energy, w, possessed by an alpha particle placed at distance, rmin, from a charge Ze is given by | 8. So, we have | which gives | Millikan’s Experiment to Measure the Charge on one Electron 1. The diagram below is a very simplified representation of Millikan’s apparatus. | 2. Small drops of oil were allowed to fall into a region between two metal plates, (the top plate had a hole in it). 3. Some of the drops became charged by friction. Further ionization was caused by a beam of x rays. 4. Millikan measured the terminal speed of a drop as it fell through the air, with V = 0. From this he could calculate the radius of the drop (and hence it’s mass). He then applied a voltage, V, to the plates and measured the new terminal speed of the same drop. 5. The change in the terminal speed of the drop was used to calculate the magnitude of the charge on the drop. 6. When many measurements had been done, all the charges were found to be integral multiples of a basic unit of charge, assumed to be the charge on one electron. 7. The value, e, is approximately -1. 6? 10-19 C. 8. A simplified version of Millikan’s experiment can be done by finding the voltage needed to just hold an oil drop stationary between the two plates. 9. Consider a drop having a charge q and mass m. | 10. If the drop is stationary, then the two forces acting on it have equal magnitudes. where E is the field strength. 11. Now, , where d is the distance between the plates, Therefore The Electron Volt (eV) 1. The electron Volt is a unit of work (or energy) much smaller than the Joule. 2. If 1electron moves through a potential difference of 1V then 1eV of work is done. Relation between the Joule and the electron Volt 1. Potential difference is work done per unit charge so, . 1 J is the work done when 1C moves through a p. d. of 1V. 2. The charge on one electron is -1. 6? 10-19 C. 3. Therefore 1eV is the work done when 1 ·6? 10-19C moves through a p. d. of 1V. This means that . 4. To convert energy in J to energy in eV, Experiment to measure the Charge to Mass Ratio of Electrons 1. The method proposed here is similar to that used by J. J. Thomson in 1897. Electrons in an evacuated tube (a â€Å"cathode ray tube†) are sent towards a region of space where there are electric and magnetic fields at 90 ° to each other. If the field strengths have a particular ratio then charged particles can pass through them undeflected. | | | 2. In the following analysis | | | V = voltage accelerating the electrons and producing the electric field between the plates| | v = speed of the electrons| | m = mass of one electron and e = charge on one electron| | E = electric field strength (E = where d = distance between plates)| | B = magnetic flux density| 3. If the electrons pass undeflected (magnitude of electric force equal to magnitude of magnetic force), then it can easily be shown that | 4. To find the speed of the electrons, remember that during acceleration the electrons are losing electric P. E. and gaining K. E. | | E. P. E. lost = K. E. gained| eV = 5. Therefore, | | | 6. Combining equations 1 and 2 to eliminate v gives, | | | | 7. Thus, using his experimental apparatus, Thomson was able to determine the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron. Today, the accepted value of is C kg-1. Atomic Structure The Rutherford Model of the Atom 1. In 1911 Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atomic structure. He suggested that an atom consists of a central nucleus (where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated) having a positive charge, surrounded by moving electrons carrying negative charge. Geiger and Marsden carried out an experiment to verify his proposal. The Geiger/Marsden a Particle Scattering Experiment 1. The apparatus is illustrated in the diagram below. | 2. The apparatus was in an evacuated container. The detector was a ZnS screen observed through a low power microscope. Each time an alpha particle hit the screen, a small flash of light was produced. 3. The detector was mounted on a support such that it could be rotated to measure the angular deflection of the alpha particles as they passed through a very thin sheet of gold. They measured the numbers of particles deflected through various angles. 4. It was found that most of ? particles pass through the gold undeflected; only a relatively small number are deflected (scattered). 5. Their results were considered to confirm Rutherford’s model and allowed them to estimate the size of the nucleus (greater than 10-14m) and the size of the atom (greater than10-10m), thus producing the slightly surprising conclusion the most of the space occupied by an atom is empty space! Closest Approach of an Alpha Particle to a Nucleus 1. For a given speed of alpha particle, the closest approach to a nucleus, rmin, will occur when the initial direction of motion of the particle is along the line joining the centers of particle and nucleus. 2. In this case, at the point of closest approach, the speed of the particle is zero. 3. As the particle approaches the nucleus, kinetic energy is being converted to electrical potential energy. K. E. lost = E. P. E. gained| 4. Electrical potential at a distance r from a point charge Q is given by | 5. For a nucleus of atomic number Z, the charge is Ze, where e is the magnitude of the charge on one proton (the same as the magnitude of the charge on an electron). 6. The magnitude of the charge on an alpha particle is 2e 7. Therefore, the energy, w, possessed by an alpha particle placed at distance, rmin, from a charge Ze is given by | 8. So, we have | which gives | Millikan’s Experiment to Measure the Charge on one Electron 1. The diagram below is a very simplified representation of Millikan’s apparatus. | 2. Small drops of oil were allowed to fall into a region between two metal plates, (the top plate had a hole in it). 3. Some of the drops became charged by friction. Further ionization was caused by a beam of x rays. 4. Millikan measured the terminal speed of a drop as it fell through the air, with V = 0. From this he could calculate the radius of the drop (and hence it’s mass). He then applied a voltage, V, to the plates and measured the new terminal speed of the same drop. 5. The change in the terminal speed of the drop was used to calculate the magnitude of the charge on the drop. 6. When many measurements had been done, all the charges were found to be integral multiples of a basic unit of charge, assumed to be the charge on one electron. 7. The value, e, is approximately -1. 6? 10-19 C. 8. A simplified version of Millikan’s experiment can be done by finding the voltage needed to just hold an oil drop stationary between the two plates. 9. Consider a drop having a charge q and mass m. | 10. If the drop is stationary, then the two forces acting on it have equal magnitudes. where E is the field strength. 11. Now, , where d is the distance between the plates, Therefore The Electron Volt (eV) 1. The electron Volt is a unit of work (or energy) much smaller than the Joule. 2. If 1electron moves through a potential difference of 1V then 1eV of work is done. Relation between the Joule and the electron Volt 1. Potential difference is work done per unit charge so, . 1 J is the work done when 1C moves through a p. d. of 1V. 2. The charge on one electron is -1. 6? 10-19 C. 3. Therefore 1eV is the work done when 1 ·6? 10-19C moves through a p. d. of 1V. This means that . 4. To convert energy in J to energy in eV, Experiment to measure the Charge to Mass Ratio of Electrons 1. The method proposed here is similar to that used by J. J. Thomson in 1897. Electrons in an evacuated tube (a â€Å"cathode ray tube†) are sent towards a region of space where there are electric and magnetic fields at 90 ° to each other. If the field strengths have a particular ratio then charged particles can pass through them undeflected. | | | 2. In the following analysis | | | V = voltage accelerating the electrons and producing the electric field between the plates| | v = speed of the electrons| | m = mass of one electron and e = charge on one electron| | E = electric field strength (E = where d = distance between plates)| | B = magnetic flux density| 3. If the electrons pass undeflected (magnitude of electric force equal to magnitude of magnetic force), then it can easily be shown that | 4. To find the speed of the electrons, remember that during acceleration the electrons are losing electric P. E. and gaining K. E. | | E. P. E. lost = K. E. gained| eV = 5. Therefore, | | | 6. Combining equations 1 and 2 to eliminate v gives, | | | | 7. Thus, using his experimental apparatus, Thomson was able to determine the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron. Today, the accepted value of is C kg-1.

Frequently Asked Questions

Bill Clinton William The American Legion Boy s Nation...

Welch1 Rook Welch Mrs. Coker English III 31 March 2016 Bill Clinton William (Bill) Jefferson Blythe IV was born on August 19th, 1946 in Hope, Arkansas. His father died three months before his birth. When he was only two, his mother left him to live with his grandparents. When she remarried, the family moved to Hot Springs, Ark. In his younger years,, Bill was determined for success. He earned academic honors. This gave him the nomination as a delegate to the American Legion Boy s Nation program in Washington, D.C., where he met JFK. This inspired him to chase a career in politics. Clinton went to Georgetown University and studied international affairs. He was an intern for Sen. J. William Fulbright of Arkansas. He got his B.S. degree in 1968. He received a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford University. He then enrolled at Yale Law School. In 1972, he managed George McGovern s Texas campaign. He graduated law school in 1973. Clinton then returned to Arkansas to teach and to make plans for his career in politics. He married Hillary Rodham, on October 11th, 1975. Clinton entered office among high expectations for policy change. He changed many Republican policies in his early administration. He found it hard to change national priorities during his first two years in office. Early in his administration several of his appointees encountered congressional disapproval. His proposal to end the ban on homosexuals in the military was met with widespread opposition from Congress, theShow MoreRelatedBill Clinton : William Shakespeare1142 Words   |  5 PagesEnglish III 31 March 2016 Bill Clinton William (Bill) Jefferson Blythe IV was born on August 19th, 1946 in Hope, Arkansas. Three months before he was born his father tragically died. When he was only two, his mother left him to live with his grandparents. When she remarried, the family moved to Hot Springs, Ark. In his younger years,, Bill was determined for success. He earned academic honors. This gave him the opportunity to go as a nominee to the American Legion Boys Nation program in Washington, D.CRead MoreBill Clinton : The American Legion Boy s Nation Program1577 Words   |  7 PagesEnglish III 26 March 2016 Bill Clinton Born on Aug. 19, 1946, in Hope, Ark., William (Bill) Jefferson Blythe IV grew up in a bad home situation. His father had died in an automobile accident before his son s birth, and his mother later was forced to leave Bill with his grandparents when she moved to New Orleans to pursue her nursing studies. The family settled in Hot Springs, Ark., after his mother married Roger Clinton, whose surname Bill later adopted. As a young man, Bill was determined to succeedRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pageslogical—to reason logically. It demonstrates the usefulness of logical reasoning as a means to making more effective decisions about your own life—decisions about what to believe and decisions about what to do. The chapter begins a systematic program of study of all the major topics regarding logical reasoning. Along the way, the book focuses on developing the following five skills: (1) writing logically, (2) detecting inconsistency and lack of clarity in a group of sentences, (3) spotting issues

Rhetorical Analysis Essay - 818 Words

Laila Lane Professor Katherine Gray English 1102 Rhetorical Analysis Todays young generation has been getting a lot of slack from older generations due to the amount technology they have. Those who have negative things to say about this generation sometimes say that theyre not as smart as the previous generations because of the new technology that is available. Literary critic at the San Francisco Chronicle, Cynthia Haven, argues that the young generation of today has actually written more than any other generation and they insert more passion into what they’re writing about as well. Haven’s purpose in writing about this seems to be to show how much this generation does write compared to what others have said in articles and†¦show more content†¦The place she’s getting her evidence from is a study done at a prestigious university known as Stanford University. In the study 189 students were to gather all the writing they did and out of 15,000 pieces gathered, only 62 percent of the writing was for their work. This is how she proves that the kids of today â€Å"write to shake the world.† To even further prove her point she uses one of the students that participated in the study as an example and almost a symbol for today’s young generation. She also uses the fact that the student went to get a Stanford’s master degree in modern thought and literature and a master’s degree from the University of Sussex in artificial intelligence to make him seem as though he is qualified to speak on behalf of an entire generation so that the audience feels as though he is qualified to speak on this topic, but are her sources good enough to prove her opening statement? The fact that most of her paper only talks about positive things coming from this generations writing makes paper seem a little less convincing that the stigma shes writing against is false. However, there were a few things that were from a negative point of view about this argument discussed in the paper along with evidence to back up why one shouldnt go against her point of view. For example, in the section about redefining â€Å"writing† Haven writes, â€Å"Some nevertheless insist that writing today sub-standard, littered withShow MoreRelatedThe Tipping Point: Rhetorical Analysis Essay813 Words   |  4 PagesThe Tipping Point: Rhetorical Analysis Throughout The Tipping Point, Malcolm Gladwell explains to his reader his ideas about drastic changes in society, and how they seem to occur so rapidly. In this particular selection, Gladwell emphasizes the purpose of â€Å"connectors†, saying that they have a â€Å"special gift for bringing the world together (page 38)†. Gladwell states that part of the reason information or trends spread like wildfire is the presence of a specific group of people. They are called â€Å"connecters†Read MoreRhetorical Analysis Of The Death Of The Moth And On Keeping A Notebook 1427 Words   |  6 Pages19, September, 2014 9th Ni Device Use Analysis Rhetoric devices are often used by writers to clarify ideas, emphasize key points, or relate insights to the reader. In both â€Å"The Death of the Moth† and â€Å"On Keeping A Notebook, † the authors heavily rely on such devices to get their points across to the audience, and these devices help strengthen overall theme the authors want to communicate. Though several may argue that Didion’s use of metaphor and rhetorical question compliment her essay very wellRead MoreRhetorical Analysis of Ellen DeGeneress Commencement Speech Essay1144 Words   |  5 Pages Ellen’s Commencement Speech Rhetorical Analysis Graduation caps fly into the air, cheers erupt, and diplomas are received. This is a typical graduation day. 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Rhetorical Analysis is the careful examination of texts, videos, and images to understand how they function in conveying their message. The definition of rhetorical analysis will help me better understand what I should be looking for when I receive a text, as rhetorical analysis is different than literary analysis. Therefore, the devices for each are also different (Lunsford et al. 88). 2. Intended audience is the initial step to any rhetorical analysis. If you are unable to identify an audienceRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Rhetorical Analysis1675 Words   |  7 PagesRhetorical analysis is the way we could communicate effectively by understanding the content, in which to lead us to achieve our goals. According to an article, rhetorical analysis â€Å"is the form of criticism that employs the principles of rhetoric†. It is also a practice of effective communication by using the language of art and media to achieve specific goals. The components I will use in a rhetorical analysis are introduction, rhetorical situation, rhetorical appeals and a conclusion. In this rhetoricalRead MoreRhetorical Analysis: Rhetorical Analysis:1723 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿ Rhetorical Analysis: President Ronald Reagan s Farwell Address Rhetorical Analysis: Reagan s Farwell Address Ronald Reagan s Farewell Address was an amazing example of conveying the fundamentals for freedom through an emotional and visual lesson. It is no wonder that the president known as the great communicator was successful in painting for us a picture of who we were, past and present, and the improvements in the areas of strength, security

Colorado River Essay Example For Students

Colorado River Essay GeographyColorado RiverGeographers can tell you that the one thing that most rivers and theiradjacent flood plains in the world have in common is that they have richhistories associated with human settlement and development. Thisespecially true in arid regions which are very dependent upon water. Twoexcellent examples are the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers whichshow use the relationship between rivers and concentrations of people. However, the Colorado River is not such a good example along mostsegments of its course. There is no continuous transportation systemthat parallels the rivers course, and settlements are clustered. Therugged terrain and entrenched river channels are the major reasons forsparse human settlement. We ask ourselves, did the Colorado River helpor hinder settlement in the Western United States?As settlers began to move westward, the Southwest was consideredto be a place to avoid. Few considered it a place to traverse, to spreadChristianity, and a possible s ource of furs or mineral wealth. Finding areliable or accessible water source, and timber for building wasdifficult to find. There was a lack of land that could be irrigatedeasily. By the turn of the century, most present day cities and townswere already established. Trails, roads, and railroads linked severalareas with neighboring regions. Although the Colorado River drainagesystem was still not integrated. In the mid 1900s many dams had beenbuilt to harness and use the water. A new phase of development occurredat the end of the second World War. There was a large emphasis onrecreation, tourism, and environmental preservation. The terrain of the Colorado River is very unique. It consists ofWet Upper Slopes, Irregular Transition Plains and Hills, DeepCanyonlands, and the Dry Lower Plains. Wet Upper Slopes: Consist of numerous streams that feed into theColorado River from stream cut canyons, small flat floored valleys oftenoccupied by alpine lakes and adjacent steep walled mountain peaks. Theseareas are heavily forested and contain swiftly flowing streams, rapids,and waterfalls. These areas have little commercial value except aswatershed, wildlife habitat, forest land, and destinations for hikers,fishermen, and mountaineers. Irregular Transition Plains and Hills: These areas are favorablefor traditional economic development. It consists of river valleys withadequate flat land to support farms and ranches. Due to the rollinghills, low plateaus, and mountain slopes, livestock grazing is common. The largest cities of the whole drainage system are found here. Deep Canyonlands: Definitely the most spectacular and leastdeveloped area along the Colorado River. These deep gorges are primarilycovered by horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks, of which sand stone isthe most abundant. The Grand Canyon does not only display spectacularbeauty, but numerous other features such as mesas, buttes, spires,balancing rocks, natural arches and bridges, sand dunes, massivesandstone walls, and pottholed cliffs. Dry Lower Plains: These consist of the arid desert areas. Theseareas encounter hot summers and mild winters. Early settlement waslimited because most of the land next to the river was not well suitedfor irrigation agriculture. The area is characterized by limited flatland, poor soils, poor drainage, and too hot of conditions for mosttraditional crops. The Colorado River was first navigated by John Wesley Powell,in his 1869 exploration through the Marble and Grand Canyons. TheColorado River begins high in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. The waterbegins from melting snow and rain, and is then supplemented by the Gunnison, Green, San Juan, Little Colorado, Virgin, and Gila Rivers. Before any dams were built, the Colorado River carried 380,000 milliontons of silt to the Sea of Cortez. Along its path, it carves out theMarble, Grand, Black, Boulder, and Topok Canyons. The Grand Canyon beingthe most popular, which is visited by numerous tourists every year, playsa large role in western tourism. The Grand Canyon is in fact one of theWorlds Seven Wonders. The Colorado Basin covers 240,000 square miles ofdrainage area. At certain points along the river, it turns into araging, muddy, rapid covered mass of water. Unlike other rivers, theColorado River doesnt meet the ocean in a grand way, but rather in asmall trickle. Almost all of the water th at passes down the river isspoken for. It passes through seven Western States, travels 1,700 miles,and descends more than 14,000 feet before emptying into the sea, withmore silt and salinity than any river in North America. A river not usedfor commerce, or any degree of navigation other than recreational, andvirtually ignored until the turn of the century. The Colorado River is the most fought over, litigated, andlegislated river in the United States. The upper Colorado passes throughmountainous, less populated country. It has seen fewer problems that thelower Colorado. The lower Colorado, which passes through canyons andarid desert, serves a more populated area. It has been a large source ofarguments for the state of California and surrounding areas since theearly 1900s. The first project on the Colorado River was the Alamo RiverProject near Yuma, Arizona. Sediment from the upper river wastransported and deposited down river. It raised the river bed so theriver was higher than the surrounding land, making water easy to divertfor irrigation.The Alamo Canal diverted water from the Colorado Riverto the Alamo River, and traveled 60 miles through Mexico across theMexicali desert to the Salton Sink, a depression in the Imperial Valley. For this, Mexico received the right to take half the water from thecanal, the rest went to the Imperial Valley. Although it may have seemedlike an easy way to divert the water, the Alamo Canal was no match forthe untamed Colorado River. In 1905 a series of floods breached theintake and flooded the Imperial Valley, settling in the Salton Sea. After tremendous amounts of manpower and money, the river was returned toits original path. This disaster alarmed the landowners of the valley. TheImperial Irrigation District of Southern California was the largestsingle user of Colorado River water. They campaigned for an All-AmericanCanal. One that would divert the river above the Mexican border andleave the Mexicali desert with what they didnt use. This was met with much opposition from the largest landowner in the Mexican desert, asyndicate of wealthy Los Angeles businessmen, headed by Harry Chandler ofthe Los Angeles Times. The Imperial Valley landowners received support from the City ofLos Angeles. The city was growing rapidly and the need for futureelectric power was a major concern. Water experts advocated a dam on theColorado. Without this dam, the All-American Canal would be in danger ofbreaching and flooding. The two forces combined to work for a Dam inBoulder Canyon on the Colorado River. In Salt Lake City in January 1919, representatives from the sevenstates that have tributaries emptying into the Colorado River met. Thewater should first be captured and used while it is young, for then itcan be recaptured as it returns from the performance of its duties andthus be used over and over again .(1)On Nov. 24, 1922, the seven states signed the Colorado RiverCompact. This pact divided the waters into 2 basin areas, separated atLees Ferry, at the head of the Grand Canyon. The Upper states includedColorado, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. The Lower states includedArizona, California and Nevada.Each area received 7.5 million acrefeet of water, with the lower basin getting an extra 1 million acre feetannually from its tributaries. The allocation of river water was basedon an annual flow at Lees Ferry of 16.5 million acre feet. This waslater found to be inaccurate and did not take into account the rivers dryyears. A more accurate flow is 13.5 million acre feet per year. In additi on, any water given to Mexico by international treaty would besupplied first from the surplus above the total of 16 million acre feet,and if this was not sufficient, the deficiency would be shared equally bythe two basins. The consensus was that the river and its tributarieswere American (244,000 sq. miles) originating in the United States, verylittle of the Colorado River was in Mexico (2,000 sq. miles), andtherefore they deserved very little. Herbert Hoover stated, We do notbelieve they (Mexicans) ever had any rights. The Indian tribes alongthe river were treated the same way. Hoover inserted what was called theWild Indian Article, nothing in this compact shall be construed asaffecting the obligations of the United States of America to Indiantribes. (2) Its obvious that the native Mexicans and Indians werebeing deprived of what originally belonged to them. The attitude ofHerbert Hoover left the local peoples with a taste of resentment. The Colorado River Pact did not apportion water to individualstates. Arizona would not ratify the pact, feeling that California wastaking all the water given to the lower basin. Arizona contributed 3major rivers, about 2 to 3 million acre feet, to the Colorado. California farmers would be the largest single users of the water, butwould contribute nothing. California finally agreed to some concessions. All the waters of the Gila River in Arizona would go to Arizona, and beexempted from the Mexican Treaty. California also agreed to apportion0.3 million acre feet of water to Nevada, 4.4 million acre feet and 1/2of the surplus to California, 2.8 million acre feet to Arizona and theother 1/2 of the surplus. Arizona was still not satisfied. The argumentwent on for years, with Congress finally passing the Boulder Canyon Actin 1928 without Arizonas ratification. Benjamin Franklin EssayWater is a social good, a public trust, should communities be able todecide independently about water use? The seven states of the ColoradoRiver Basin should follow the advice of Secretary of the Interior BruceBabbitt and form a commission, along with representatives of the FederalGovernment with input from the Colorado River Indian Tribes, to regulate,manage, control, enforce and educate the public and private sectorsregarding the Colorado River Water. Too many agencies, too many privatewater companies all add to the confusion of the water rights of theColorado River. Water banks need to be set up. Lake Mead is designatedas a water bank for storage if all parties agree to this, but with thehistory of regulations regarding Colorado River water, there will mostlikely be a long and drawn out battle over this idea. Only the fear of no water or a severe drought seems to move passage on laws regarding thewater. People come to the Colorado River to play and enjoy the water. Sixnational parks and recreation areas along the Colorados shores support amulti-million dollar recreation industry of boating, hiking, fishing andwhite water rafting. (4).Recreation has become a huge part of theColorado River System. This has brought loud cries from theconservationists. In 1991 the Arizona stretch of the Colorado River wasnamed the most endangered river of 1991 by American Rivers, aconservation group. Many of the fish and wildlife have disappeared. Special areas have been designated as wildlife protection areas. TheEndangered Species Act protects the river and can be enactedindependently of the Clean Water Act. Federal Fish and Game, stateresources and conservation groups have all worked to make the publicaware of this problem. The United States Fish and Wildlife designatedthe Colorado River north of Parker Dam to Needles as a critical habitat. This was done to protect the squawfish, the razorback sucker, thehumpback, and bonytail chubs. Sportsmen fear this could severelyhandicap recreation on Lake Havasu by limiting boating. There are other areas that have suffered from altering the ColoradoRiver. When the Alamo River Project was implemented, the natural riverbed was raised to a higher level than the surrounding land. In 1900,George Chaffey decided to run a canal through Mexico using the Coloradosold channel to the sink in California. The canal turned north into theUnited States east of Mexicali. From there the channel, now known as theAlamo River, led almost straight north. Chaffey called the southern halfthe Imperial Valley. In may of 1901, Colorado River water began to runinto this channel. In a few years the valley had 700 miles of irrigationditches. Settlers piled in, homesteading federal land or buying itoutright from the railroad. To get irrigation water they had to buystock in water companies controlled by the Imperial Land Company, a frontfor Chaffey and Rockwoods California Developing Company. By 1904 therewere 100,000 acres under irrigation. Then silt blocked up the head ofthe canal. Water del ivery to farmers was all but cut off. In the fallof 1904, The California Development Company made a cut in the river tobypass the blockage. During the spring floods of 1905, the Colorado,completely out of control, rushed through the cut and surged on to theAlamo River, its old overflow channel, then plunged on into the NewRiver. Digging into the soft soil, it created a 28 foot high waterfall,scouring out the rivers channel to the width of a quarter mile. Itemptied into what is today known as the Salton Sea. The Salton is a bizarre looking sea which was 45 miles long, 17 mileswide and about 80 feet deep. After engineers got the Colorado undercontrol it should have dried up through evaporation. The sea has nooutlets and only gets about 2.3 inches of rain per year. The sea hasbeen sustained by drainwater from the 500,000 acres of heavily wateredand fertilized growing fields of the Imperial Valley, one of the mostfruitful desert irrigation projects in history. Agricultural waste watercarries various nutrients, including nitrates, as well as pesticides,potentially toxic levels of the element selenium, and four million tonsof salt leached from the soil every year. The Salton Sea is now a lostcity. In the late 1950s, it was supposed to become the Golden Statesgreat new playland, an alluring combination of the desert and sea. M. Penn Phillips and other developers of Salton City bought 19,600 acresthat they subdivided on paper for house lots, shops, schools, parks andchurches. They spent $1 mill ion on a fresh water distribution systemwith 260 miles of water lines. They put in power lines and 250 miles ofelegantly paved streets. They built a yacht club and a $350,000 18-holegolf course. A big time gambler Ray Ryan with reputed mob connectionsbought land on the other side of the sea and sank more than $2 millioninto a resort he called the North Shore Beach and Yacht Club. Unexpected rains kept raising the level of the sea and flooding shorelinehomes and buildings. A steadily growing concern set in about the watersbrownish tinge and about pollution levels and increasing salt content. North Shore Beach and Yacht Club is deserted today, its breakwatercrumbling to the ground, its pool full of stank rotten water. Across thewater visitors northbound on Route 86 to Salton City find not sailboatsand bikini-clad blondes on water skis, or docks full of pleasure boats,but instead a scattering of houses, RV parks, run down motels and emptylots along grassy overgrown streets. The Alamo River and the New River both feed into the Salton Sea. Bothflow north from Mexico receiving drainwater along the way. The New Riveris considered the most polluted river in the United States. It passesthrough Mexicali, Mexico, a city of more than 750,000 people that dumpsin raw sewage, inadequately treated sewage, leachate from landfills, andindustrial and slaughter house wastes, as well as trash, toilet paper,dead dogs and phosphate detergents. The sea was for years one of the greatest fishing spots in California,and has long been one of Americas great birding spots. Birders flock toits shores, listing their sightings on clipboards maintained atornithological sites. At least 380 species have been reported, a numberexceeded in North America only by the Texas coast in spring. Recently there have been increasing signs of trouble. Early in 1992,biologist Bill Radke of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service saw a numberof eared grebes stagger up on shore and die. Many were so disorientedthat they stood still while gulls tore into their flesh and began eatingthem on the spot. This continued and the final death toll rose, byconservative estimates, to 150,000 grebes. Radke helped collect 40,000carcasses. Necropsies ruled out infectious disease as the cause ofdeath, but the tissues of some of the dead birds contained three timesmore selenium than that of grebes tested at the Salton Sea three yearsearlier. It is obvious that the Alamo River Project has had quite adisastrous effect on the California sink. We must also view the goodthat it has done, no matter how polluted the Salton Sea is today. In theearly 1900s, this project was responsible for irrigating over 100,000acres, today that number is over 500,000 acres of land. It is also alarge bird sanctuary where over 380 species have been documented. To answer the question, Did the Colorado River help or hinder settlementin the Western United States? It is obvious that much of the WesternU.S. is very dependent upon fresh water from this great river. Themajority of the water that is supplied to the Los Angeles Basin area istapped out of the Colorado River. Major towns and cities in Arizona suchas Phoenix, Tempe, Scottsdale, and Tucson are largely dependent upon theColorado for water. The entire Southwest, in general, relies on theColorado River for its major source of water. Without the Colorado, itwould not be possible to have so many settlements in this beautiful andunique part of the world. WORKS CITED(1)Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert, The American West and itsDisappearing Water, Viking Penguin, In., New York, 1986. p. 319(2)Gary D. Weatherford., ; F. Lee Brown, New Courses for theColorado River, University of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe., 1986. p. 18 (3)New Courses for the Colorado River. p. 188(4)Paul Gray, Glen Canyon Dam, Time, July 22, 1991., p. 22BIBLIOGRAPHYCarrier, Jim, The Colorado, A River Drained Dry, National Geographic,June 1991., p. 4. Doerner,William R., Big Splash in the Arid West, Time, November 23,1985, p. 43. Fradkin, Philip L., A River No More, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1984. Gray, Paul, Glen Canyon Dam, Time, July 22, 1991., p. 22. Hundley, N